As our simple analysis shows (Figure 1), negative relatedness between sperm abounds within the sperm storage organ of a promiscuous female, in which sperm of multiple males mingle, setting the scene for spite. If a female mates again, things change. Consider, for example, two sisters queens in a honeybee colony. For example, if there are two alleles at equal frequency in the population at a focal locus, then unrelated people will have probability of having the same allele at that locus. The idea that sperm harm one another dates back 25 years in the empirical literature [2629]. According to some authorities, four years is long enough to drift completely across the Pacific Ocean. The nature of starfish (For example, taking a focal rare allele in a heterozygous queen, the focal individual frequency (pA) is 0.5, average frequency in the other queen (pR) is about 0.125 ( chance she is also heterozygous), and local frequency (p) is the average of the frequency in each, or 0.3125, giving r = (0.125 0.3125)/(0.5 0.3125) = 1). Water temperature and chemistry ranges based on 50 samples. Fusitriton oregonensis (Oregon hairy triton) is a species of large predatory sea snail, a marine gastropod mollusk in the family Cymatiidae. Taking two competing queens as an example, we can recalculate relatedness using the formula: r = (pR - p)/(pA - p) but where p (the population frequency) is no longer the frequency of the focal allele in the whole population of bees, but the average frequency in the two queens (local frequency). 1978. In support of this theory, recent artificial insemination experiments in the silkworm moth Bombyx mori revealed that parasperm may facilitate transport of eusperm to the site of sperm storage and/or fertilisation [18], and the enormous size of the parasperm in some molluscs, up to 140 times larger than eusperm, may also help to shuttle eusperm to the eggs [19]. [1] Species [ edit] Species within the genus Fusitroton include: [1] Fusitriton brasiliensis Cossignani & Cossignani, 2003 Fusitriton galea Kuroda & Habe, 1961 Fusitriton glassi Swinnen, 2019 Fusitriton laudandus Finlay, 1926 The Oregon hairy triton was first described by botonist J. H. Redfield in 1848. WebAbstract. WebFusitriton oregonensis (Oregon hairy triton) is a species of large predatory sea snail, a marine gastropod mollusk in the family Cymatiidae. Perhaps the key driver for increased motility, however, is sperm competition between the ejaculates of different males. You can help Wikipedia by expanding it. This opportunity paves the way, in evolutionary terms, for behaviours that reduce an individual sperm's chance of fertilising in order to increase the chances of another: sperm altruism. WebGenus Fusitriton Species oregonensis Common Name: Hairy Oregon Triton. As might be expected, sperm grouping is sometimes found to drive more efficient migration towards the egg. The Bulletin of the Russian Far East Malacological Society 15-16: 5-30. No, Is the Subject Area "Fertilization" applicable to this article? [1] The snail was given its specific name oregonensis (meaning "of Oregon") to honor the Oregon Territory by conchologist John Howard Redfield in 1846. Biological Bulletin. 213(2) 152-159. Reproduction: Each triton is one gender. WebThese patterns of abundance correlate with feeding preferences and distributional patterns of the predatory snail Fusitriton oregonensis, which occurs only in rocky subtidal sites, prefers ascidians over other invertebrates as prey and prefers phlebobranchs over stolidobranchs. WebFusitriton oregonensis (Oregon hairy triton) is a species of large predatory sea snail, a marine gastropod mollusk in the family Cymatiidae. [10] Under laboratory conditions, the larvae showed no signs of senescence at that point. Calculations of relatedness require one to assign the relevant population scale at which individuals interact and compete (see Box 1, [16]). [In Russian]. WebAbstract. This means that, in addition to conflict among individual sperm, there is also potential conflict between each sperm and the male, which could lead to an evolutionary arms race over which controls sperm morphology and behaviour [5,7]. However, there is also evidence for gene expression in sperm during and after meiosis [35,36], including the striking examples of segregation distorters. Sperm heteromorphism: The analogy with an insect worker caste appears to go even further in species with morphologically distinct sperm types, a phenomenon known as sperm heteromorphism. In most species, the extent to which the fate of a spermatid is determined by the male parent or by its own haploid genome is unclear. Typically, chance is taken relative to the population frequency of the relevant alleles. What is clear is that the spermmale partnership can be an uneasy one, steeped in potential conflicts. Show More The snail was given its specific name oregonensis (meaning "of Oregon") to honor the Oregon Territory by conchologist John Howard Redfield in 1846. Semantic Scholar is a free, AI-powered research tool for scientific literature, based at the Allen Institute for AI. Pers. [1] For faster navigation, this Iframe is preloading the Wikiwand page for Fusitriton oregonensis . From [10]. Shell-bearing gastropods of the intertidal zone of the seas of the USSR. Meanwhile, sperm of gyrinid beetles are attached via a third-party rod-like object produced in the male epididymis, the spermatostyle. Apyrene sperm are parasperm that lack DNA altogether, which makes them simply an accessory of the male, as is the case for seminal fluids. Neogene tonnoidean gastropods of tropical and South America: contributions to the Dominican Republic and Panama Paleontology Projects and uplift of the Central American Isthmus. There is another interpretation that puts the sperm back in the spotlight: perhaps sperm are able to specifically target and group together with their closest relatives. Human sperm were famously suggested to be heteromorphic, comprising one type that contributed to fertilisation and another, the kamikaze sperm, that sacrificed its own chances of fertilisation to neutralise the sperm of competing ejaculates, for example by blocking, incapacitating, or killing rival sperm [28]. But why would close relatives kill each other? A comparable effect is seen in the opossum. (B) Montage of side-by-side transmission electron microscopy sections of the carrier (i) and lancet (ii) parasperm. The nucleus of the parasperm is eliminated during paraspermiogenesis, but there is considerable post-transcriptional secretion activity resulting in the production of a variety of granules, some rich in glycoproteins. It is fairly common, and can be locally abundant. Duggins, personal observation). Sometimes, however, it is informative to measure relatedness at different scales [41]. The sperm morphology of Adelomelon beckii is described by optical and transmission electron microscopy and the use of paraspermatozoa is suggested as a systematic character to reveal phylogenetic relationships in this family. [9] WebFusitriton oregonensis is a species of large predatory sea snail, a marine gastropod mollusk in the family Cymatiidae. Later features, including the peripheral condensation of nuclear chromatin followed by nuclear invagination, the posterior breakdown into nuclear vesicles (caryomerites), centriole multiplication and the synthesis of secretory products, are the most conspicuous changes in the process of paraspermatogenesis. After mating the female tritons lay the eggs on vertical surfaces and under rock ledges. Gulbin, V. V.; Chaban, E. M. (2012). The answer is a mixture of kinshippassing on shared genes through relativesand coercioninsect workers are born subfertile and have their reproduction policed by other colony members [17]. By contrast, for the simplest case of random mixing among sperm in the female, the incentive for individual sperm to engage in competitive behaviours is expected to be high irrespective of female mating behaviour (dotted line, Figure 1A). In other molluscs (e.g., Aporrhais pespelecanis), parasperm morphology suggests that they deliver nutrients either to eusperm or to the female [19], which is likely, either directly or indirectly via the female, to increase eusperm fitness. WebFusitriton is a genus of large predatory sea snails marine gastropod molluscs in the family Cymatiidae. Sperm evolution requires one to consider Darwinian selection on multiple interacting parties and at multiple levels, and this lends itself to the tools of sociobiology: kin selection and multi-level selection theory [4]. Conversely, sperm sociality represents fertilebut so far little exploredground for the study of social evolution. Whether these behaviours are formally altruistic or spiteful, however, remains to be seen. Redfield J.H. A simple social action is to form some kind of team. Late veligers grew slowly, but shell sizes increased even in the 4th and 5th years. (C) Apical hook morphology across different species of rodents (1, Bunomys fratrorum; 2, M. musculus; 3, R. norvegicus; 4, Dasymys incomtus; 5, Pseudomys oralis; 6, Maxomys surifer; 7, Melomys burtoni; 8, A. sylvaticus; 9, A. speciosus). The replication of centrioles during spermatogenesis in the Prosobranch snail is described in the light of the theory, first proposed by Pollister, that the supernumerary centriole in the atypical cells are derived from the centromeres of degenerating chromosomes. WebDepth range based on 90 specimens in 1 taxon. WebThe Oregon triton is a common subtidal species of marine snail found from southern Califor-nia to the Gulf of Alaska and to the eastern Bering Sea. The charming great-diving beetle Dytiscus marginalis has sperm with a distinctive flat side that allows some sperm to pair upstuck together by the headand use both tails to propel themselves onward [8]. Yes WebThe prosobranch Fusitriton oregonensis exhibits an unusual form of sperm polymorphism, which is attached in groups of about fifty to worm-shaped, apyrene, carrier sperm, and the possible functions of the lancet and carrier sperm are discussed. Honeybee queens are not fighting with all other queens in the population for their place in a colony (which would give relatedness of approximately 0.25, as queens are typically half-sisters). Examination of the ultrastructure of the mature spermatozoa of three species of Monacha in Egypt revealed that sperm of each of them composed of head, neck region, midpiece and end-piece, which recommend that they are actually three valid species representing this genus of land snails in Egypt. Insects such as the cowpea beetle, Callosobruchus maculatus, inseminate more sperm than the female can actually store [30]. An extraordinarily long larval duration of 4.5 Years from hatching to metamorphosis for teleplanic veligers of Fusitriton oregonensis. There are clearly some constraints: mature sperm DNA is condensed, which limits its potential for expression [33,34]. It occurs occasionally intertidally and is com-mon to 140 fm on rock, sand, shell, or gravel sub-strate. here. And, developmentally, are sperm able to influence whether they become a parasperm or a eusperm? Just as positive relatedness predicts that there may be helping among individuals, so negative relatedness predicts that there may be harming. Corporate life tells of its advantages: an effectively allied group will reliably trump a group in conflict. Reproduction: Each triton is one gender. State Symbols: Mountains to National Wildlife Refuges, Chapter 186 State Emblems; State Boundary, "Washington State University Extension, Intertidal Organisms EZ-ID Guides: Fusitriton oregonensis (Oregon triton)", "An extraordinarily long larval duration of 4.5 years from hatching to metamorphosis for teleplanic veligers of, https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Fusitriton_oregonensis&oldid=1010071585, Short description is different from Wikidata, Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License 3.0, This page was last edited on 3 March 2021, at 17:24. Its range extends from the Bering Sea to northern Mexico; it is also found on coastlines in By contrast, males are competing at the scale of the real population, and therefore we measure relatedness among males with that scale of reference. Although the mode of action of these sperm is unclear, they are extremely motile and have been suggested to act as a filler that evolved to prevent the female from re-mating by stimulating her sperm storage organ and making it feel full. Fusitriton oregonensis AquaMaps Data sources: GBIF OBIS Upload your photos Google image | No photo available for this species. Yes For example, male butterflies produce two types of sperm: eupyrene and apyrene sperm. (B) Male perspective (population is at the scale of the real population). Puzzling at first, this hook is now thought to help sperm to reversibly form groups of up to several hundred sperm (Figure 2A and 2B). But it is also clear that the standard measure of relatedness does not usefully predict this behaviour: positive relatedness is not expected to drive fatal conflicts. WebDepth range based on 90 specimens in 1 taxon. Annotated list of shell-bearing gastropods This may mean temporary alliances with other sperm, but may also mean strong competition among the sperm of the same ejaculate. The morphology of the slender, filiform spermatozoa of 13Protodrilus species of 22 different populations is investigated by light and transmission electron microscopy and elucidates possible plesiomorphous and apomorphous sperm traits. WebThe Oregon triton is a common subtidal species of marine snail found from southern Califor-nia to the Gulf of Alaska and to the eastern Bering Sea. Water temperature and chemistry ranges based on 50 samples. No drawings available for Cymatiidae. Little is known of the snail's feeding habits, but they are believed to feed on other mollusks,[6] ascidians ("sea squirts"),[8] and more rarely, sea urchins. . Fusitriton oregonensis AquaMaps Data sources: GBIF OBIS Upload your photos Google image | No photo available for this species. Its range extends from the Bering Sea to northern Mexico; it is also found on coastlines in Duggins, personal observation) can consume urchins, but the crabs and eels are rare in this benthic community, and Fusitriton, while common, eats urchins rarely (D. 0. This might occur either through direct recognition of the same genotypes in other sperm [15,16], or more simply through a proxy that allows joining with same-male rather than foreign sperm. But swimming in a train also costs some sperm dearly. Only five of the 14 species of solitary ascidians in the San Juan Islands, Washington, USA commonly co-occur with an abundant predator of the rocky subtida WebGenus Fusitriton Species oregonensis Common Name: Hairy Oregon Triton. The shell is light brown in color and is covered with gray-brown bristly periostracum, hence the name "hairy." Yes The viable, eupyrene sperm are attached in groups of about fifty to worm-shaped, apyrene, carrier sperm. Veliger larvae of the NE Pacific snail Fusitriton oregonensis were reared in culture for 4.5 to 4.6 years from hatching to metamorphosis and through postlarval growth to reproduction. Reproduction: Each triton is one gender. (1846). WebDepth range based on 90 specimens in 1 taxon. (C) Montage of two transmission electron microscopy sections of a carrier parasperm transporting eusperm (long dark nuclei) with some cross-sections of eusperm and carrier and lancet parasperm (credit: John Buckland-Nicks). Unsolved Mysteries discuss a topic of biological importance that is poorly understood and in need of research attention. An associated question is whether stratified sperm are able to actively recognise other sperm, or whether associations result from passive processes such as the spatial separation of ejaculates within a female. No, Is the Subject Area "Ova" applicable to this article? [ .., .. The viable, eupyrene sperm are attached in groups of about fifty to worm-shaped, apyrene, carrier sperm. WebThe gastropod Fusitriton oregonensis (Eaton 1971), wolf eels, and lithoid crabs (D. 0. He has little to gain from sperm infighting, and instead only seeks to ensure that all of the eggs available are fertilised by his sperm. Pacts and alliances that would have been disadvantageous for a sperm cell in the absence of competing ejaculates suddenly make sense, and indeed, it is with sperm competition between the ejaculates of different males that we might expect the most elaborate sperm adaptations [1]. Typically, only one sperm type (eusperm) is involved in fertilisation, while the other type(s) (parasperm) do not or cannot fertilise the egg. From [10]. This competition from a foreign male has important knock-on effects for the other conflicts. Citation: Pizzari T, Foster KR (2008) Sperm Sociality: Cooperation, Altruism, and Spite. In the wood mouse, over 50% of the sperm forming a train undergo a premature acrosome reaction that prevents them from fertilising [3]. WebFusitriton is a genus of large predatory sea snails marine gastropod molluscs in the family Cymatiidae. Meanwhile, sisters will have a probability of allele sharing because, in addition to chance, they have a probability of inheriting an identical allele from a parent. The key point then is that there is no single measure of genetic relatedness among individuals; rather it must always be set against a scale of reference [41]. The prosobranch Fusitriton oregonensis exhibits an unusual form of sperm polymorphism. Late veligers grew slowly, but shell sizes increased even in the 4th and 5th years. He's not even the best drummer in the Beatles. Attributed to John Lennon, after a reporter commented that Ringo was not the best drummer in the world. They contain large stores of glycogen in. Parasperm may also actively release compounds that harm eusperm: immature lancet paraspermatids are known to produce digestive enzymes that may end up being released in the female [19]. Microtubules are found outside the nucleus and mitochondria during the final stages of spermiogenesis, when elongation is almost complete, and it is suggested that as the Golgi body migrates around the nucleus the endoplasmic reticulum may circulate with it. And while no speed advantage in grouping was found in the house mouse, Mus musculus [10], sperm groups swim faster than single sperm in the Norway rat [10] and the wood mouse, Apodemus sylvaticus (discussed below) [3]. The only conflict for the male is with other males, and this conflict strengthens as the number of sperm inseminated by other males into the same female increases. WebThe prosobranch Fusitriton oregonensis exhibits an unusual form of sperm polymorphism, which is attached in groups of about fifty to worm-shaped, apyrene, carrier sperm, and the possible functions of the lancet and carrier sperm are discussed. Intergovernmental Oceanographic Commission (IOC) of UNESCO. But what would altruism look like in these groups? We will argue here that it does. This might mean a temporary alliance with some fellow sperm, but should others flounder and fail, all the better [5]. Further experiments that mix differentially labelled sperm would provide opportunities to test the potential for sperm kin recognition and spermsperm interactions in general. Her evolutionary interests can be complex but, generally speaking, her priorities are to make sure that all of her eggs are fertilised, and that they are fertilised by sperm delivering the best genes for her offspring. The potential for sperm to have a social life then seems clear, but does this help us to make sense of the diverse sperm behaviour seen in nature? In order to fuse with an egg, mammalian sperm must undergo an acrosome reaction, in which their acrosome tip is bared of its membrane and sperm hydrolytic enzymes are released. WebThe Oregon triton is a common subtidal species of marine snail found from southern Califor-nia to the Gulf of Alaska and to the eastern Bering Sea. Show More The snail was given its specific name oregonensis (meaning "of Oregon") to honor the Oregon Territory by conchologist John Howard Redfield in 1846. At the extremes, sperm could be kept entirely separate or mix fully. Formally, relatedness is calculated as (pR- p)/(pA - p) where pR, pA, and p denote focal gene frequency in recipients, actors, and the population (Box 1, [42]). https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pbio.0060130.t001. As we have seen, sperm can benefit from joining forces with others, helping their kin, or even harming others. Is the Subject Area "Sperm" applicable to this article? (B) Montage of side-by-side transmission electron microscopy sections of the carrier (i) and lancet (ii) parasperm. WebFusitriton oregonensis (Redfield, 1846) AphiaID 476496 (urn:lsid:marinespecies.org:taxname:476496) Classification Biota Animalia (Kingdom) Mollusca (Phylum) Gastropoda (Class) Caenogastropoda (Subclass) Littorinimorpha (Order) Tonnoidea (Superfamily) Cymatiidae (Family) Fusitriton (Genus) Fusitriton oregonensis The queens are now less rather than more likely than chance (relative to the local frequency) to have the alleles in common with the other: the two queens are in fact negatively related [25,43]. We are grateful to Andy Gardner, Geoff Parker, John Buckland-Nicks, Greg Neely, Nilay Yapici, and Stuart West for many helpful comments, and to John Buckland-Nicks and Harry Moore for kindly providing photographic material. It is notable, however, that these sperm groups form either before or shortly after ejaculation. [1] Species [ edit] Species within the genus Fusitroton include: [1] Fusitriton brasiliensis Cossignani & Cossignani, 2003 Fusitriton galea Kuroda & Habe, 1961 Fusitriton glassi Swinnen, 2019 Fusitriton laudandus Finlay, 1926 The second male's sperm are less likely than average to share genes with the first (negative relatedness, Box 1), which can favour sperm that harm themselves just to reduce the chance that the other male's sperm fertilise eggs (spite). In 1989, the Oregon hairy triton was declared the states official sea shell by the sixty-fifth Legislative Assembly of Oregon. WebThe gastropod Fusitriton oregonensis (Eaton 1971), wolf eels, and lithoid crabs (D. 0. SummaryThe prosobranch Fusitriton oregonensis exhibits an unusual form of sperm polymorphism. (1986). Annals of the Lyceum of Natural History of New York. 4: 163-168, pls 10-11. Sperm trains in the wood mouse and conjugate opossum sperm: As discussed above, sperm of the wood mouse attach themselves to each other by bending the apical hook on their head around the flagellum or the hook of another sperm, forming trains of hundreds of sperm that allow them to swim faster (Figure 2A and 2B) [3]. [1] For faster navigation, this Iframe is preloading the Wikiwand page for Fusitriton oregonensis . The magic ingredient for spite is negative relatedness, whereby individuals have a less than average chance of sharing genes. If a female mates once, all sperm have the same probability of sharing genes, and relatedness at the scale of the female is zero. https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Fusitriton&oldid=1010071512, Short description is different from Wikidata, Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License 3.0, This page was last edited on 3 March 2021, at 17:24. However, the mixing of sperm from competing males also means that a sperm cell is now more likely to share genes with sperm from the same male than with the average sperm present in the female (positive relatedness). No, Is the Subject Area "Swimming" applicable to this article? The eggs are placed in rectangular capsules in a spiral pattern. Our simple relatedness calculations assume that sperm social behaviours have no negative effects on females or on the probability that eggs are left unfertilised (Figure 1, Box 1). WebFusitriton oregonensis (Redfield, 1846) AphiaID 476496 (urn:lsid:marinespecies.org:taxname:476496) Classification Biota Animalia (Kingdom) Mollusca (Phylum) Gastropoda (Class) Caenogastropoda (Subclass) Littorinimorpha (Order) Tonnoidea (Superfamily) Cymatiidae (Family) Fusitriton (Genus) Fusitriton oregonensis Its range extends from the Bering Sea to northern Mexico; it is also found on coastlines in Environmental ranges Depth range (m): 0 - 662.5 (B) Montage of side-by-side transmission electron microscopy sections of the carrier (i) and lancet (ii) parasperm. No, Is the Subject Area "Evolutionary genetics" applicable to this article? It is fairly common, and can be locally abundant. However, the reference to scale here is easily missed, as it is implicit in the need to define the probability of gene sharing above chance. Helgolnder wissenschaftliche Meeresuntersuchungen, Besides typical spermatozoa, which fertilize eggs, extraordinarily large atypical spermatozoa of extremely bizarre shape are formed in the testis of the protandric marine snailEpitonium tinctum, Two kinds of spermatozoa are formed in the testis of Goniobasis laqueata, typical (eupyrene) and atypical (apyrene); a similar dimorphism is noted in several other related genera. The male interests, however, are different. In other words, if females only mate once, there is no sperm competition from a male's perspective, which may reduce his benefits from the formation of competitive sperm groups that swim against each other. There is a second apyrene sperm, which is lancet-shaped and has a different internal organization than the carrier, but does not transport eupyrene sperm.The eupyrene sperm are filiform (185 m long), with a conical acrosome, elongate nucleus and midpiece. WebThe mechanisms by which Cnemidocarpa finmarkiensis persists in the presence of F. oregonensis is unknown. The prosobranch Fusitriton oregonensis exhibits an unusual form of sperm polymorphism. The secret to unravelling the mystery of subfertile and infertile sperm may lie in understanding their social lives. Water temperature and chemistry ranges based on 50 samples. Not always. This appears to facilitate and synchronise sperm migration to the female sperm storage organs, where the spermatostyle disintegrates, releasing the sperm [8]. Can you list the top facts and stats about Fusitriton oregonensis? Duggins, personal observation) can consume urchins, but the crabs and eels are rare in this benthic community, and Fusitriton, while common, eats urchins rarely (D. 0. Veliger larvae of the NE Pacific snail Fusitriton oregonensis were reared in culture for 4.5 to 4.6 years from hatching to metamorphosis and through postlarval growth to reproduction. The eggs are placed in rectangular capsules in a spiral pattern. When two individuals share more genes in common than the population average, they are genetically related, and natural selection can favour altruistic behaviours that invest in another's reproduction, as with social insect workers. Or in the terminology of social evolution, sperm are always unrelated at any female re-mating frequency (dotted line, Figure 1A) if we measure average genetic relatedness among sperm at the scale of the female (see Box 1). In particular, the presence of foreign sperm better aligns the evolutionary interests of each sperm and its male by increasing the incentive for cooperation with other same-male sperm (Figure 1). In 1989, the Oregon hairy triton was declared the states official sea shell by the sixty-fifth Legislative Assembly of Oregon. One reason might be that it minimises the time that sperm have to survive in a potentially hostile female environment. The power of interspecies comparisons for our understanding of sperm biology is already clear from the link between sperm morphology and promiscuity (Figure 2). The rise of sociobiology in the sixties and seventies was largely driven by the problem of altruism: why does a honeybee worker, for example, sacrifice her personal reproduction to help queen and colony? Conflict between sperm and male genomes may often be more subtle, and understanding its full scope and effects will benefit from a number of complementary approaches. This case is also the most interesting, because it generates non-zero relatednesses that may select for complex social traits (see Box 1). The eggs are placed in rectangular capsules in a spiral pattern. But given that the attachment phase seems to require autonomous sperm behaviour [3], it seems likely that both male and sperm interests effect the grouping. In other words, taking the perspective of the haploid genome in a sperm cell, different sperm haplotypes from the same male are in evolutionary conflict [5,6], while from the perspective of the diploid genome of the male parent, all sperm are equally valuable. Trudy Zoologicheskogo Instituta AN SSSR. 148: 90-92. WebFusitriton oregonensis (Oregon hairy triton) is a species of large predatory sea snail, a marine gastropod mollusk in the family Cymatiidae. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pbio.0060130.g004, If we are to fully unravel the mystery of infertile sperm, we need a greater understanding of the evolutionary costs and benefits of sperm actions, and the extent to which sperm control their own fate rather than being forced by the male into behaviours that only appear altruistic or spiteful. It occurs occasionally intertidally and is com-mon to 140 fm on rock, sand, shell, or gravel sub-strate. Consistent with this imagery, sperm morphology and behaviour in many organisms appears exquisitely designed to maximise the chances of fertilisation of each individual sperm cell [1].