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There is a tremendous amount of variability among sufferers, both in terms of how symptoms of narcolepsy manifest and the effectiveness of currently available treatment options. In fact, this relationship is so robust that some view the presence of RBD as a potential aid in the diagnosis and treatment of a number of neurodegenerative diseases (Ferini-Strambi, 2011). Infants should not have caps placed on their heads when put down to sleep in order to prevent overheating, and people in the childs household should abstain from smoking in the home. The suprachiasmatic nucleus (SCN) serves as the brains clock mechanism. Furthermore, slow-wave sleep after learning a new task can improve resultant performance on that task (Huber, Ghilardi, Massimini, & Tononi, 2004) and seems essential for effective memory formation (Stickgold, 2005). Unlike the other sleep disorders described in this section, a person withnarcolepsycannot resist falling asleep at inopportune times. While we certainly welcome the convenience of having the darkness lit up, we also suffer the consequences of reduced amounts of sleep because we are more active during the nighttime hours than our ancestors were. Given the central role that sleep plays in our lives and the number of adverse consequences that have been associated with sleep deprivation, one would think that we would have a clear understanding of why it is that we sleep. Contrary to popular belief, individuals undergoing hypnosis usually have clear memories of the hypnotic experience and are in control of their own behaviors. Withdrawal from opioids includes pain, which patients often misinterpret as pain caused by the problem that led to the original prescription, and which motivates patients to continue using the drugs. These behaviors vary widely, but they can include kicking, punching, scratching, yelling, and behaving like an animal that has been frightened or attacked. Generally, narcolepsy is treated using psychomotor stimulant drugs, such as amphetamines (Mignot, 2012). For one, research suggests that infants should be placed on their backs when put down to sleep, and their cribs should not contain any items which pose suffocation threats, such as blankets, pillows or padded crib bumpers (cushions that cover the bars of a crib). While there are variations, there are four parts that appear consistent in bringing people into the state of suggestibility associated with hypnosis (National Research Council, 1994). Unlike Freud and Jung, Cartwrights ideas about dreaming have found empirical support. Sleep regulationrefers to the brains control of switching between sleep and wakefulness as well as coordinating this cycle with the outside world. Several of the nurses interviewed commented that their work schedules affected their relationships with their family. Like many other stimulants, cocaine agonizes the dopamine neurotransmitter system by blocking the reuptake of dopamine in the neuronal synapse. These drugs share in common their ability to serve as agonists of the gamma-Aminobutyric acid (GABA) neurotransmitter system. (credit a: modification of work by Jim Epler; credit b: modification of work by Caleb Roenigk), video about circadian rhythms and how they affect sleep, video that gives sleep tips for college students, video about the relationship between sleep and memory, instructional video about using Buddhist meditation techniques to alleviate stress, video about the results of a brain imaging study in individuals who underwent specific mindfulness meditative techniques, https://openstax.org/books/psychology-2e/pages/1-introduction, Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License, Cocaine, amphetamines (including some ADHD medications such as Adderall), methamphetamines, MDMA (Ecstasy or Molly), Increased heart rate, blood pressure, body temperature. This chapter will discuss states of consciousness with a particular emphasis on sleep. Chronic insomnia is almost always associated with feeling overtired and may be associated with symptoms of depression. If we have biological rhythms, then is there some sort ofbiological clock? There may also be differences in both brain structure and function in infants that die from SIDS (Berkowitz, 2012; Mage & Donner, 2006; Thach, 2005). In individuals diagnosed with a substance use disorder, there is a compulsive pattern of drug use that is often associated with both physical and psychological dependence. Stimulant users seek aeuphoric high, feelings of intense elation and pleasure, especially in those users who take the drug via intravenous injection or smoking. Brainwave activity changes dramatically across the different stages of sleep. Sleep apneais defined by episodes during which a sleepers breathing stops. Alcohol, barbiturates (e.g., secobarbital, pentobarbital), Benzodiazepines (e.g., Xanax). Psychological dependence, or drug craving, is a recent addition to the diagnostic criteria for substance use disorder in DSM-5. In some cases, users experience vivid visual hallucinations. In this section, we will discuss each of these stages of sleep and their associated patterns of brain wave activity. Drugs in this category include cocaine, amphetamines (including methamphetamine), cathinones (i.e., bath salts), MDMA (ecstasy), nicotine, and caffeine. Alertness is associated with higher body temperatures, and sleepiness with lower body temperatures. Clonazepam, an anti-anxiety medication with sedative properties, is most often used to treat RBD. Our sleep-wake cycle, which is linked to our environments natural light-dark cycle, is perhaps the most obvious example of a circadian rhythm, but we also have daily fluctuations in heart rate, blood pressure, blood sugar, and body temperature. Still, people experiencing opioid withdrawal may be given methadone to make withdrawal from the drug less difficult. Low doses increase relaxation, decrease inhibitions. While "internal state" or impulsivity are terms more generally discussed in psychology or neuroscience, the concept is familiar to anyone. This final section will consider hypnotic and meditative states as additional examples of altered states of consciousness experienced by some individuals. As a group, hallucinogens are incredibly varied in terms of the neurotransmitter systems they affect. I was really sleepy and having trouble concentrating. The amount of sleep we get varies across the lifespan. c. deaths due to accidents have increased. Add a comment. Hypnosis has also been used to draw out information believed to be buried deeply in someones memory. Sleep reboundrefers to the fact that a sleep-deprived individual will fall asleep more quickly during subsequent opportunities for sleep. Thus, opioid drugs, which mimic this endogenous painkilling mechanism, have an extremely high potential for abuse. Again, this is an intuitive and appealing explanation for why we sleep. Freud was not the only theorist to focus on the content of dreams. One popular hypothesis of sleep incorporates the perspective of evolutionary psychology. The substantial amount of research on SIDS has led to a number of recommendations to parents to protect their children (Figure 4.14). However, the success rate of such treatments is questionable. Users can experience physical symptoms that include nausea, elevated blood pressure, and increased heart rate. The first three stages of sleep are NREM sleep, while the fourth and final stage of sleep is REM sleep. These symptoms include fatigue, sluggishness, irritability, andinsomnia(i.e., a consistent difficulty in falling or staying asleep for at least three nights a week over a months time) (Roth, 2007). The low cost coupled with lower risk of overdose than with opiate drugs is making crystal meth a popular choice among drug users today (NIDA, 2019). 2. These symptoms include fatigue, sluggishness, irritability, and insomnia (i.e., a consistent difficulty in falling or staying asleep for at least three nights a week over a month's time) (Roth, 2007). Sleep is not a uniform state of being. There is a trend that females report more somatic symptoms than males; thus, more females are diagnosed with somatic symptom disorder than males (APA, 2022). Consider a patient who believed that as a result of his sleep apnea he had three car accidents in six weeks. The term was first coined by a physiologist named Walter Cannon in 1926. Despite the prevalence of caffeine use and the large number of people who confess to suffering from caffeine addiction, this was the first published description of soda dependence appearing in scientific literature. Not able to pass stool or gas. While people are often unaware of their sleep apnea, they are keenly aware of some of the adverse consequences of insufficient sleep. Medical marijuana is legal in over half of the United States and in the District of Columbia (Figure 4.19). When people have difficulty getting sleep due to their work or the demands of day-to-day life, they accumulate a sleep debt. The freebase version of cocaine, known as crack, is a potent, smokable version of the drug. Mescaline and LSD are serotonin agonists, and PCP (angel dust) and ketamine (an animal anesthetic) act as antagonists of the NMDA glutamate receptor. Scott Falater had a history of regular episodes of sleepwalking as a child, and he had even behaved violently toward his sister once when she tried to prevent him from leaving their home in his pajamas during a sleepwalking episode. An agonist facilitates the activity of a neurotransmitter system, and antagonists impede neurotransmitter activity. Primary signs and symptoms of Ebola often include some or several of the following: Fever. Table 4.1shows the new recommendations, which describe sleep durations that are recommended, may be appropriate, and not recommended. With repeated use of many central nervous system depressants, such as alcohol, a person becomes physically dependent upon the substance and will exhibit signs of both tolerance and withdrawal. Ebola virus disease (EVD), formerly known as Ebola haemorrhagic fever, is a rare but severe, often fatal illness in humans. Avoid alcohol, cigarettes, caffeine, and heavy meals before bed. As we grow older, we sleep less. People who suffer from this disorder can injure themselves or their sleeping partners when engaging in these behaviors. Psychology 2e by Openstax is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License, except where otherwise noted. For example, around one third of individuals diagnosed with narcolepsy experience vivid, dream-like hallucinations during narcoleptic attacks (Chokroverty, 2010). She indicated that she had fallen asleep at inappropriate or dangerous times, including while eating, while socializing with friends, and while driving her car. This section will present information relating to the use of various psychoactive drugs and problems associated with such use. Brainwave activity changes dramatically across the different stages of sleep. While many users snort cocaine, intravenous injection and inhalation (smoking) are also common. Acute alcohol administration results in a variety of changes to consciousness. Gastrointestinal symptoms including abdominal pain, diarrhea, and vomiting. This campaign is sponsored in part by the National Institute of Child Health and Human Development. Sleep is also associated with the secretion and regulation of a number of hormones from several endocrine glands including: melatonin, follicle stimulating hormone (FSH), luteinizing hormone (LH), and growth hormone (National Institutes of Health, n.d.). In such instances, REM rebound may actually represent an adaptive response to stress in non-depressed individuals by suppressing the emotional salience of aversive events that occurred in wakefulness (Suchecki, Tiba, & Machado, 2012). Humans have an endogenous opioid neurotransmitter systemthe body makes small quantities of opioid compounds that bind to opioid receptors reducing pain and producing euphoria. On January 16, 1997, Scott Falater sat down to dinner with his wife and children and told them about difficulties he was experiencing on a project at work. In 2015, the National Sleep Foundation updated their sleep duration hours, to better accommodate individual differences. Abnormal Motor Behavior. Meditationis the act of focusing on a single target (such as the breath or a repeated sound) to increase awareness of the moment. According to the dissociation view, hypnosis is effectively a dissociated state of consciousness, much like our earlier example where you may drive to work, but you are only minimally aware of the process of driving because your attention is focused elsewhere. It is typically consumed in pill form. It appeared that Scott Falater had killed his wife in his sleep, or at least, that is the defense he used when he was tried for his wifes murder (Cartwright, 2004; CNN, 1999). High doses can cause death due to respiratory depression. Inflammation has many causes, including infections, injuries, and diseases. These same women were awakened during REM sleep in order to provide a detailed account of their dream content. Awareness of external stimuli includes experiences such as seeing the light from the sun, feeling the warmth of a room, and hearing the voice of a friend. (b) People practicing meditation may experience an alternate state of consciousness. The participant is made comfortable and is directed to be relaxed and sleepy. Thirst. Lucid dreamsare dreams in which certain aspects of wakefulness are maintained during a dream state. Generally, and for most people, our circadian cycles are aligned with the outside world. Comparative research indicates, however, that the relationship that exists between predatory risk and sleep is very complex and equivocal. Instead, sleep is composed of several different stages that can be differentiated from one another by the patterns of brain wave activity that occur during each stage. Obviously, regular narcoleptic episodes could interfere with the ability to perform ones job or complete schoolwork, and in some situations, narcolepsy can result in significant harm and injury (e.g., driving a car or operating machinery or other potentially dangerous equipment). This causes blood vessels to dilate, and the skin may feel warm and flushed. In the variation of mindful meditation, the meditators attention is focused on some internal process or an external object (Zeidan, Grant, Brown, McHaffie, & Coghill, 2012). Train your body to associate the bed with sleeping rather than other activities like studying, eating, or watching television shows. For example, the National Institutes of Drug Abuse has sponsored research that suggests the misuse and abuse of the prescription pain killers hydrocodone and oxycodone are significant public health concerns (Maxwell, 2006). This figure illustrates some of the negative consequences of sleep deprivation. Increased alertness, mild euphoria, decreased appetite in low doses. Treatment. If you lie down to take a nap and fall asleep very easily, chances are you may have sleep debt. Ahallucinogenis one of a class of drugs that results in profound alterations in sensory and perceptual experiences (Figure 4.18). (credit sleeping: modification of work by Ryan Vaarsi). Some research suggests that sleep deprivation affects cognitive and motor function as much as, if not more than, alcohol intoxication (Williamson & Feyer, 2000). Avoid anything stimulating for an hour before bed. typically follow the example of their parents more than their friends. Anopioidis one of a category of drugs that includes heroin, morphine, methadone, and codeine. You don't have to be a psychologist to know that conditions like hunger or fatigue have an impact on thinking and decision-making; these are examples of internal states. As part of treatment, the sleeping environment is often modified to make it a safer place for those suffering from RBD (Zangini, Calandra-Buonaura, Grimaldi, & Cortelli, 2011). To date, people have used a variety ofnicotinereplacement therapies in addition to various psychotherapeutic options in an attempt to discontinue their use of tobacco products. There are two types of sleep apnea: obstructive sleep apnea and central sleep apnea. Stage 3is often referred to as deep sleep or slow-wave sleep because this stage is characterized by low frequency (less than 3 Hz), high amplitudedelta waves(Figure 4.10). Methamphetamineis a type of amphetamine that can be made from ingredients that are readily available (e.g., medications containing pseudoephedrine, a compound found in many over-the-counter cold and flu remedies). Evolutionary psychologyis a discipline that studies how universal patterns of behavior and cognitive processes have evolved over time as a result ofnatural selection. Aside from their utility as analgesic drugs, opioid-like compounds are often found in cough suppressants, anti-nausea, and anti-diarrhea medications. The Safe to Sleep campaign educates the public about how to minimize risk factors associated with SIDS. We experience different states of consciousness and different levels of awareness on a regular basis. You were capable of engaging in the all of the complex tasks involved with operating a motor vehicle even though you were not aware of doing so. Acetylcholine functions as a neurotransmitter in motor neurons. Research shows that the most severe effects of sleep deprivation occur when a person stays awake for more than 24 hours (Killgore & Weber, 2014; Killgore et al., 2007), or following repeated nights with fewer than four hours in bed (Wickens, Hutchins, Lauk, Seebook, 2015). Our lives involve regular, dramatic changes in the degree to which we are aware of our surroundings and our internal states. It is often prescribed for minor pain, and it is available over-the-counter in some other countries. Fever. Complications. Caffeine is found in many common medicines (such as weight loss drugs), beverages, foods, and even cosmetics (Herman & Herman, 2013). 22. This is an important factor because we can develop tolerance and experience withdrawal from any number of drugs that we do not abuse. In fact, ameta-analysis, which is a study that combines the results of many related studies, conducted within the last decade indicates that by the time we are 65 years old, we average fewer than 7 hours of sleep per day (Ohayon, Carskadon, Guilleminault, & Vitiello, 2004). Interestingly, since the advent of electric light, the amount of sleep that people get has declined. Some people might turn to over-the-counter (OTC) or prescribed sleep medications to help them sleep, but this should be done sparingly because many sleep medications result in dependence and alter the nature of the sleep cycle, and they can increase insomnia over time. If you cannot fall asleep, leave your bed and do something else until you feel tired again. This chart illustrates the circadian change in body temperature over 28 hours in a group of eight young men. Obstructive sleep apneaoccurs when an individuals airway becomes blocked during sleep, and air is prevented from entering the lungs. Sleepwalking most often occurs during slow-wave sleep, but it can occur at any time during a sleep period in some affected individuals (Mahowald & Schenck, 2000). The 20th century Swiss psychiatrist Carl Jung believed that dreams allowed us to tap into the collective unconscious. Perhaps our ancestors spent extended periods of time asleep to reduce attention to themselves from potential predators. c. Devices like this are designed to provide exposure to bright light to help people maintain a regular circadian cycle. It seems like everyone knows a friend, family member, or neighbor who has died of an overdose. In recent years, methamphetamine (meth) use has become increasingly widespread. Elements that are known to make PTSD more likely are the following: Perceived life threat Personal injury Interpersonal violence, particularly perpetrated by a caregiver Past and present vulnerability, including genetics, childhood trauma, insufficient emotional support, concurrent causes of stress Example: Childhood abuse and rape